See It Differently

Citations & Evidence

The research behind the reasoning.

Every clinical position across this site is grounded in published research, established textbooks, or documented clinical consensus. This page collects that evidence in one place — organized by pillar, so you can trace a specific claim back to its source.

Convergence Insufficiency

  • Alvarez TL, Scheiman M, Santos EM, Morales C, Yaramothu C, d'Antonio-Bertagnolli JV, Gohel S, Biswal BB, Li X. Clinical and functional imaging changes induced from vision therapy in patients with convergence insufficiency. Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). 2019:104-109. doi:10.1109/EMBC.2019.8857163.
  • Alvarez TL, Vicci VR, Alkan Y, Kim EH, Gohel S, Barrett AM, Chiaravalloti N, Biswal BB. Vision therapy in adults with convergence insufficiency: clinical and functional magnetic resonance imaging measures. Optometry and Vision Science. 2010;87(12):E985-E1002. doi:10.1097/OPX.0b013e3181fef1aa
  • CITT-ART Investigator Group. Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial--Attention and Reading Trial (CITT-ART): Design and methods. Vision Development & Rehabilitation. 2015;1(3):214-228.
  • Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial Investigator Group. A Randomized Clinical Trial of Treatments for Symptomatic Convergence Insufficiency in Children. Archives of Ophthalmology. 2005;123(1):14-24.
  • Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial Study Group. Randomized Clinical Trial of Treatments for Symptomatic Convergence Insufficiency in Children. Archives of Ophthalmology. 2008;126(10):1336-1349. doi:10.1001/archopht.126.10.1336.
  • Cook DL. The CITT-ART and the Art of Vision Therapy. Vision Development & Rehabilitation. 2019;9(2):1-12.
  • Kulp MT, Morrison A, Mitchell GL, Scheiman M, Cotter SA, Jenewein E, Borsting E, Hertle RW, Bade A. Effect of Vergence/Accommodative Therapy on Reading in Children with Convergence Insufficiency: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Optometry and Vision Science. 2019;96(11):836-849.
  • Letourneau JE, Ducic S. Prevalence of convergence insufficiency among elementary school children. Canadian Journal of Optometry. 1988;50:194-197.
  • Letourneau JE, Lapierre N, Lamont A. The relationship between convergence insufficiency and school achievement. Optometry and Vision Science. 1979;56(1):18-22. doi:10.1097/00006324-197901000-00004.
  • Lynn Mitchell MAS, et al. Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial -- Attention and Reading (CITT-ART) study design. Journal of Clinical Trials. 2014 Dec 31.
  • Rouse MW, Borsting E, Hyman L, Hussein M, Cotter SA, Flynn M, Scheiman M, Gallaway M, De Land PN. Frequency of convergence insufficiency among fifth and sixth graders. Optometry and Vision Science. 1999;76(9):643-649. doi:10.1097/00006324-199909000-00022.
  • Scheiman M, Kulp MT, Cotter SA, Lawrenson JG, Wang L, Li T. Non-surgical interventions for convergence insufficiency. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020;12:CD006768. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006768.pub3.
  • The Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial (CITT) Study Group. The Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial: Design, Methods, and Baseline Data. Ophthalmic Epidemiology. 2008;15(1):24-36.
  • Widmer DE, et al. Post-therapy functional magnetic resonance imaging in adults with symptomatic convergence insufficiency. Optometry and Vision Science. 2018;95(6):505-514.

Vision Problems in Kids

  • American Board of Pediatrics (ABP). Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics Subspecialty Certification. Chapel Hill, NC: American Board of Pediatrics; 2023.
  • American Optometric Association. Evidence-based Clinical Practice Guideline: Comprehensive Pediatric Eye and Vision Examination. AOA. 2024.
  • Baker CI, et al. Developmental differences for word processing in the ventral stream. Brain and Language. 2012;125(1):49-58.
  • Cook DL. When Your Child Struggles: The Myths of 20/20 Vision: What Every Parent Needs. Austin, TX: [Self-published]; 1992.
  • Domingo-Sanz VA. Inhibition of Primitive Reflexes and Its Relationship with Visual Projection in Children and Adolescents. Optometry & Visual Performance. 2022;10(4):183-197.
  • Furth HG, Wachs H. Thinking Goes to School: Piaget's Theory in Practice. New York: Oxford University Press; 1974.
  • Gesell A, Ilg FL, Bullis GE. Vision: Its Development in Infant and Child. New York: Paul B. Hoeber, Inc.; 1949.
  • Getman GN, Kraskin RA. Techniques and Diagnostic Criteria for the Optometric Care of Children's Vision. Santa Ana, CA: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 1959.
  • Getman GN. Developmental Optometry. Santa Ana, CA: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; [date unknown]. ISBN: 9780943599236.
  • Getman GN. How to Develop Your Child's Intelligence: More Successful Adulthood By Providing More Adequate Childhood. [7th ed.] Austin, TX: Research Publications; 1962.
  • Getman GN. Smart in Everything Except School. Santa Ana, CA: Vision Extension; 1992:44-60.
  • Getman GN. The visuomotor complex in the acquisition of learning skills. In: Hellmuth J, ed. Learning Disorders. Vol. 1. Seattle, WA: Special Child Publications; 1965:49-76.
  • Goddard Blythe S. Reflexes, Learning and Behavior: A Window into the Child's Mind. Sausalito, CA: Deadgull Editions; 2002.
  • Harmon DB. Some Preliminary Observations on the Developmental [Aspects of Visual Function]. Journal publication or monograph; 1940s.
  • Press LJ, Moore BD. Clinical Pediatric Optometry. Philadelphia: Mosby; 1993.
  • Scheiman MM, Rouse MW, eds. Optometric Management of Learning-Related Vision Problems, 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier; 2006.
  • Schnell PH, Taub MB, Duckman RH, eds. Visual Development, Diagnosis, and Treatment of the Pediatric Patient, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (LWW); 2019.
  • Woolf D. What are Behavioral Optometry and Developmental Optometry? American Journal of Optometry and Archives of the American Academy of Optometry. 1967;44:281-286.

ADHD or Vision Problem

  • Ababneh LT, Bashtawi M, Ababneh BF, Mahmoud IH, Rashdan M, Zahran M. Ocular findings in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a case-control study. Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2020;57:303-306
  • Clavé L, Torrents A. Convergence insufficiency prevalence in attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder children depends on the diagnosis criteria. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2025;45(1):23-30.
  • Fabian ID, Kinori M, Ancri O, Spierer A, Tsinman A, Ben Simon GJ. The possible association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with undiagnosed refractive errors. J AAPOS. 2013;17(5):507-511.
  • Granet DB, Gomi CF, Ventura R, Miller-Scholte A. The relationship between convergence insufficiency and ADHD. Strabismus. 2005;13(4):163-168. doi:10.1080/09273970500455436.
  • Grönlund MA, Aring E, Landgren M, Hellström A. Visual function and ocular features in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, with and without treatment with stimulants. Eye (Lond). 2007;21(4):494-502.

Accommodative Dysfunction

  • Scheiman M, Wick B. Clinical Management of Binocular Vision: Heterophoric, Accommodative, and Eye Movement Disorders, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2023.

Concussion & Neuro-Optometric Care

  • Alhilali L, et al. DTI-MRI sheds light on mild traumatic brain injury. AuntMinnie. 2014 Apr 13.
  • Alnawmasi M, et al. The effect of mild traumatic brain injury on the visual processing of moving objects. Journal of Neurotrauma. 2019.
  • Alsalaheen BA, Mucha A, Morris LO, et al. Vestibular rehabilitation for dizziness and balance disorders after concussion. Journal of Neurology & Physical Therapy. 2010 Jun;34(2):101-109.
  • Alvarez TL, Scheiman M, Cantiello M, et al. CONCUSS randomized clinical trial of vergence/accommodative therapy for concussion-related symptomatic convergence insufficiency. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2025. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2025-109807.
  • Barkhoudarian G, Hovda DA, Giza CC. Temporal window of metabolic brain vulnerability to concussion: a pilot application of 1H-MR spectroscopy. Neurosurgery. 2008 Jun;61(2):379-388.
  • Ciuffreda KJ, Kapoor N, Rutner D, et al. Occurrence of oculomotor dysfunctions in acquired brain injury: A retrospective analysis. Optometry. 2007 Oct;78(10):543-550.
  • Department of Defense. Clinical Recommendation: Assessment and Management of Oculomotor Dysfunction Following Traumatic Brain Injury. Health.mil. 2016.
  • Functional activity changes after vergence and accommodative rehabilitation of concussion-related convergence insufficiency: CONCUSS clinical trial fMRI results. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2025;19:1703781. doi:10.3389/fnins.2025.1703781.
  • Giza CC, Hovda DA. The neurometabolic cascade of concussion. Journal of Athletic Training. 2001;36(3):228-235.
  • Hulkower MB, Poliak DB, Rosenblum SB, et al. A decade of DTI in traumatic brain injury: Ten years and 100 articles later. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2013 Oct;34(10):233-240.
  • Mucha A, Collins MW, Moser RS, et al. A brief vestibular/ocular motor screening (VOMS) assessment to evaluate concussions: preliminary findings. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2014 Aug;42(8):1517-1526.
  • Nisted I, Hellemose LA, Eggertsen PP, Odgaard L, Bek T, Nielsen JF. Convergence insufficiency in patients with post-concussion syndrome is accompanied by a higher symptom load: a cross-sectional study. Brain Injury. 2024;38(8):645-651.
  • Padula WV, Argyris S, Ray J. Visual evoked potentials (VEP) evaluating treatment for post-trauma vision syndrome (PTVS) in patients with traumatic brain injuries (TBI). Brain Injury. 1994;8(2):125-133.
  • Padula WV, Nelson CA, Benabib R, Yilmaz T, Krevisky S. Modifying postural adaptation following CVA through prismatic shift of visuo-spatial egocenter. Brain Injury. 2009;23:566-576.
  • Pathophysiology of Mild TBI. NCBI Bookshelf - Brain Neurotrauma. 2015.
  • Rasdall M, et al. Study suggests visual system affected in patients with mild traumatic brain injury. Modern Retina. 2024 Dec 4.

Binocular Vision Dysfunction

  • Bansal S, Han J, Ciuffreda KJ. The Effects of Vertical Yoked Prisms on Gait. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2010;51(13):7087-7092.
  • Harris P. The binocular continuum. Journal of Behavioral Optometry. 2002;13(5):101-107.
  • Ip B, et al. GABAergic inhibition in the human visual cortex relates to eye dominance and perceptual suppression. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2022;10:949395.
  • Karaca I, Demirkılınç Biler E, Palamar Onay M, Özbaran B, Üretmen Ö. Stereoacuity, fusional vergence amplitudes, and refractive errors prior to treatment in patients with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Turk J Ophthalmol. 2020;50(1):15-19.
  • Kraskin RA. Yoked prisms in vision training. Optometric Extension Program Curriculum II. 1981-1983.
  • Press LJ. The Art of Prescribing Low Amounts of Prism: Basic Clinical Applications. Optometric Clinical Practice. 2020;2(2):3.
  • Press LJ. The Art of Prescribing Low Amounts of Prism: Optimizing Outcomes. Optometric Clinical Practice. 2023;5(2):3.
  • Press LJ. The Art of Prescribing Low Amounts of Prism: Optimizing Outcomes. Optometric Clinical Practice. 2025;7(2):4.
  • Sheedy JF, Parsons CE. Vertical yoked prism\--patient acceptance and postural adjustment. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 1987;7(3):255-257.
  • Warshowsky JH. Rationale for a Behavioral Clinical Approach to Routinely Prescribing Prism. Optometry & Visual Performance (OVP) Journal. 2022;7(2):Article 4.

Oculomotor Dysfunction & Reading

  • Borowsky R, Cummine J, Owen WJ, Friesen CK, Shih F, Sarty GE. fMRI of ventral and dorsal processing streams in basic reading processes: insular sensitivity to phonology. Brain Topography. 2006;18(4):233-239.
  • Dodick D, Starling AJ, Wethe J, Pang Y, Messner LV, Smith C, Master CL, Halker-Singh RB, Vargas BB, Bogle JM, Mandrekar J, Talaber A, Leong D. The Effect of In-School Saccadic Training on Reading Fluency and Comprehension in First and Second Grade Students: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Child Neurology. 2017 Jan;32(1):104-111.
  • Eden GF, Van Metter JL, et al. Visual processing deficits in dyslexia: dorsal stream dysfunction. Nature. 1996;384(6609):512-514.
  • Garzia RP. Vision and Reading, Vol. 5. Baltimore, MD: Mosby; 1995.
  • Lovegrove WJ, Bowling A, Badcock D, et al. Specific reading disability and the visual system. British Journal of Psychology. 1986;77(2):193-202.
  • Lyon GR, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA. Dyslexia: A definition and consensus statement. Annals of Dyslexia. 2003;53:38-64. doi:10.1007/s11882-003-0003-0.
  • Pellicano A, Gibson A. Dorsal-stream functioning in autism and dyslexia. UCL Discovery. 2008.
  • Petersen SE, Fox PT, Posner MI, et al. Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single-word reading. Neuroreport. 1990;1(1):3-6.
  • Price GR, McCrory C. The ABA model of reading: accounting for the visual word form system. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2007;11(5):193-199.
  • Pugh KR, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, DeF clever R. Neurobiological studies of reading and reading disability. Journal of Communication Disorders. 2001;34(6):479-492.
  • Rayner K. Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin. 1998 Nov;124(3):372-422.
  • Schatschneider A, et al. Roles of the dorsal and ventral visual streams in fluent reading. University of South Carolina Thesis. 2015.
  • Shapiro F. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2001.
  • Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization: A new treatment for PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress Studies. 1989 Jun;2(3):211-217.
  • Stein J, Walsh V. To see but not to read; the magnocellular theory of dyslexia. Trends in Neurosciences. 1997 Apr;20(4):147-152.
  • Stein JF. The magnocellular theory of developmental dyslexia. Developmental Neurorehabilitation. 2001;4(1):9-12.
  • Van der Mark I, et al. The ventral visual word form system in reading. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2009.

Strabismus & Amblyopia

  • Ciuffreda KJ. The scientific basis for and efficacy of optometric vision therapy in nonstrabismic accommodative and vergence disorders. Optometry. 2002 Dec;73(12):735-762.
  • Cook DL. A Treatise on Re-Defining Success in Optometric Vision Therapy for Strabismus Based on a Case Series of 75 Patients. Vision Development & Rehabilitation. 2025;11(1):9-47.
  • Cook DL. Optometric alternative to amblyopia occlusion therapy. Journal of Optometry & Vision Development. 1995 Jun;26(2):71-75.
  • Cook DL. The Shape of the Sky: The Art of Using Egocentric Stereopsis in the Treatment of Strabismus. Vision Development & Rehabilitation. 2015;1(4):340-367.
  • Donner TH, et al. Normative values for the nearpoint of convergence of elementary school children. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus. 1998;35(3):123-128.
  • Huang L, et al. The perceptual consequences of interocular suppression in amblyopia. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2011;52(11):8103-8110.
  • Khan T. Is there a critical period for amblyopia therapy? Results of a study on older anisometropic amblyopes. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2015;9(8):NC01-NC04. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2015/13277.6288.
  • Levi DM, Li RW, Klein SA. Perceptual learning in adult amblyopia. Journal of Vision. 2004;6(6):476-487.
  • Levi DM, Li RW. Improving the performance of the amblyopic visual system. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 2009;364(1525):399-407. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0203.
  • Nguyen NM, et al. The role of suppression in amblyopia. IOVS. 2011;52(11):7789.
  • Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group (PEDIG). Randomized trial of treatment of amblyopia in children aged 7 to 17 years. Archives of Ophthalmology. 2005;123(4):437-447. doi:10.1001/archopht.123.4.437.
  • Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group (PEDIG). Stability of visual acuity improvement following discontinuation of amblyopia treatment in children aged 7 to 12 years. Archives of Ophthalmology. 2007;125(5):655-659. doi:10.1001/archopht.125.5.655.
  • Pérez OM. A new approach to measure interocular suppression in amblyopia and strabismus. Journal of Vision Research. 2023.
  • Sanet R, Vergara P. Sanet/Vergara Protocol for Anisometropic Amblyopia. COVD 2021 Conference Presentation.
  • Sanet R. Success in amblyopia therapy as a function of age. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics. 1975.
  • Schor CE, et al. Binocular Summation and Suppression of Contrast Sensitivity in Amblyopia and Strabismus. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2019;10:234.
  • Wright KW, et al. The Amblyopia Treatment Studies: Implications for Clinical Practice. Journal of AAPOS. 2011.

Vision Therapy

  • Alvarez TL, Jaswal R, Gohel S, Biswal BB. Functional activity significantly correlates to symmetrical vergence peak velocity: An fMRI study of vision therapy. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2014;55(13):2661.
  • Barrett BT. A critical evaluation of the evidence supporting the practice of behavioural vision therapy. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 2009;29(1):4-25. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2008.00607.x.
  • Peachey GT, Peachey P. Optometric vision therapy for visual deficits and dysfunctions: A suggested model for evidence-based practice. Vision Development & Rehabilitation. 2015;1(4):290-339.
  • Press LJ, Taub MB, Schnell PHWV. Applied Concepts in Vision Therapy 2.0. Santa Ana, CA: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 2022.
  • Press LJ. Applied Concepts in Vision Therapy. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book; 1997.
  • Press LJ. Topical review of the literature: Lenses and behavior. In: Applied Concepts in Vision Therapy. 2nd ed. Santa Ana: Optometric Extension Program; 2008.
  • Sanet R. The Sanet Vision Seminar Series with commentary by Press LJ. California: Emergent Vision Therapy; 2023.

Foundational Neuroscience & Field History

  • Barry SR. Fixing My Gaze: A Scientist's Journey into Seeing in Three Dimensions. New York: Basic Books; 2009. ISBN: 978-0-465-00913-8.
  • Birnbaum MH. Behavioral optometry: a historical perspective. Journal of the American Optometric Association. 1994;65(1):36-42.
  • Birnbaum MH. Optometric Management of Nearpoint Vision Disorders. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1993.
  • Cohen L, Lehéricy S, Schaettler M, et al. The visual word form area: a prelexical module for written word processing. Nature Neuroscience. 2002;5(12):1269-1274.
  • Felleman DJ, Van Essen DC. Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate cerebral cortex. Cerebral Cortex. 1991 Jan-Feb;1(1):1-47.
  • Forrest EB. Going beyond the behavioral model: a challenge for the future. Journal of Optometric Vision Development. 1987;18(2):3-5.
  • Forrest EB. Stress and Vision. Cleveland: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 1988.
  • Getman GN. The Primary Visual Abilities Essential to Academic Achievement. Duncan, OK: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 1964.
  • Goddard Blythe S. Reflexes, Movement, Learning & Behaviour: Analysing and Unblocking Neuro-Motor Immaturity. 2nd ed. London: Hawthorn Press; 2023.
  • Goodale MA, Milner AD. Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends in Neurosciences. 1992;15(1):20-25. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(92)90344-8.
  • Harmon DB. Notes on a Dynamic Theory of Vision. 3rd Revision. Austin, TX: [published by author]; 1958.
  • Harmon DB. The Co-ordinated Classroom. Austin, TX: [published by author]; 1949. Revised edition, 1951.
  • Harris P. Visual conditions of symphony musicians. Journal of the American Optometric Association. 1988;59(12):952-959.
  • Hickok G, Poeppel D. The cortical organization of speech processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2007;8(5):393-402.
  • Hubel DH, Wiesel TN. The effect of early visual deprivation on the development of the visual cortex. Journal of Physiology. 1970.
  • Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM, et al. Principles of Neural Science. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2013.
  • Kraskin RA. Lens Power in Action. Santa Ana, CA: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 2003.
  • Kraskin RA. Preventive vision care. Journal of the American Optometric Association. 1985;56:454-456.
  • Kraskin RA. Stress point retinoscopy. Journal of the American Optometric Association. 1965;36:416-419.
  • Kraskin RA. Vision Training In Action. Santa Ana, CA: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 1965-1968.
  • Lesser SK, Skeffington AM. Introduction to Near Point Refraction. Fort Worth, TX: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 1954.
  • Lesser SK. Introduction to Modern Analytical Optometry (with Arthur Marten Skeffington). Fort Worth, TX: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 1974.
  • Maples WC. A.M. Skeffington: the father of behavioral optometry---his contributions. Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE). 1998;3579:17-24.
  • Maples WC. Darrell Boyd Harmon (1898-1975). Hindsight. 2018.
  • Milner AD, Goodale MA. The Visual Brain in Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1995.
  • Our Vision Development & Rehabilitation Editorial Staff. You are Bob Sanet's Legacy. Vision Development & Rehabilitation. 2022;11(3).
  • Panum FS. Experimental investigations on stereoscopic vision. Journal of Physiology. 1858.
  • Sacks O. Stereo Sue. In: The Mind's Eye. New York: Pantheon Books; 2010:109-138.
  • Sacks O. Stereo Sue: Why Two Eyes Are Better Than One. The New Yorker. June 19, 2006:54-60.
  • Schmitt EP. The Skeffington Perspective of the Behavioral Model of Optometric Data Analysis and Vision Care. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse; 2006.
  • Skeffington AM. Introduction to Clinical Optometry. Fort Worth, TX: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; 1988.
  • Skeffington AM. Practical Applied Optometry (Optometric Extension Program Curriculum, 2). Fort Worth, TX: Optometric Extension Program Foundation; [date unknown].
  • Spitler RH. The Syntonic Principle. Tucson, AZ: [Syntonic Phototherapy Publications]; 1940s.
  • Trevarthen CB. Two visual systems in the baboon. In: Vision and the Brain. New York: Raven Press; 1968.
  • Trevarthen CB. Visual cortex and the two visual systems in baboons. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Comparative Psychiatry. Berlin: Springer; 1968:159-163.
  • Ungerleider LG, Mishkin M. Two cortical visual systems. In: Ingle DJ, Goodale MA, Mansfield RJW (eds.). Analysis of Visual Behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1982:549-586.
  • Warshowsky JH. Opportunity Development Association (ODA) Center for Advanced Vision Care: A Structured Approach Towards Remediation of Visual Dysfunction. Clinical Medicine Research. 2022;11(3):81-87.

Further Reading

Organizations, Credentials & Core Textbooks

Where to go for structured training, ongoing education, and the standard clinical references behind developmental and behavioral optometry.

Foundational Curriculum

OEPF Clinical Curriculum — Multi-weekend postgraduate training program covering the functional examination, case analysis, lens prescribing philosophy, and vision therapy sequencing. The primary structured entry point for practitioners entering the field without a formal residency. www.oepf.org

OPSIS — Optometric Pediatric and Specialty Instruction Series — Structured didactic curriculum with emphasis on pediatric populations and the developmental framework underlying functional vision care. www.reinventingoptometry.com

Supplemental Training

The Sanet Seminar Series — Online video seminar series by Robert Sanet OD, FOVDR. Accessible and clinically focused; most effective when completed alongside or following the OEPF or OPSIS curriculum rather than as a standalone entry point. emergent.teachable.com/p/online-sanet-seminar-series

The Functional Vision Evaluation: A Clinical Course for Optometrists — Six-hour video course filmed in a working developmental optometry practice, covering the full functional vision examination — history, preliminary testing, refraction, phorometry, pattern recognition, and consultation. Three companion workbooks included. Designed for practitioners who were never taught how to think through functional vision patients clinically. Disclosure: this course was created by the author of this book. whop.com/see-it-differently

Immersive Entry

ASCO-Accredited Vision Therapy Residency Programs — One-year postgraduate clinical training programs providing concentrated supervised experience in vision therapy and visual rehabilitation. The most efficient available route to clinical fluency for practitioners committing to the field early in their careers. A directory of accredited programs is maintained by the Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry. optometriceducation.org/current-students/residency-programs

Conferences and Professional Meetings

OEPF Regional Conferences — Smaller, clinically focused regional gatherings affiliated with the OEPF. Includes the Great Lakes Congress (Chicago), the Southwest Congress of Optometry (San Antonio), and the Kraskin Invitational Skeffington Symposium (Washington, DC), among others. The most accessible entry point into the professional community for practitioners new to the field. www.oepf.org

OVDRA Annual Meeting — Optometric Vision Development and Rehabilitation Association — The field's most substantial annual continuing education event. Pre-meeting courses offer intensive single-topic training difficult to replicate in any other format. www.covd.org

NORA — Neuro-Optometric Rehabilitation Association — Annual conference addressing the intersection of vision and acquired brain injury, including post-concussion visual dysfunction, stroke, and traumatic brain injury. Complementary to the OVDRA track rather than duplicative of it. www.noravisionrehab.org

Lecture Archives and Online Resources

DigiVision Media — OVDRA Lecture Library — Archive of OVDRA conference lecture recordings. Functions as a supplemental continuing education resource between conferences and curriculum programs; not a substitute for sequential training. digivisionmedia.com/lectures/covd

OEPF Historical Manuscript Archive and Shop — Digitized collection of OEPF clinical monographs, documents, and correspondence from the 1930s through the 1980s, including original writings by A.M. Skeffington, Nathan Flax, Ralph Schrock, and others. Also includes textbooks, workbooks, clinical tools, and equipment. Available through paid OEPF membership and the OEPF shop. www.oepf.org/shop

VisionHelp Blog — Long-running clinical and educational blog covering developmental optometry, visual rehabilitation, and functional vision care. A useful ongoing resource for practitioners at all stages of entry into the field. visionhelp.wordpress.com

Journal of Behavioral Optometry — Peer-reviewed journal covering clinical and scientific developments in behavioral and developmental optometry. Archived issues available through the OEPF. www.oepf.org/journal-of-behavioral-optometry

Optometry & Visual Performance (OVP) Journal — Peer-reviewed journal of the OVDRA covering vision therapy, visual rehabilitation, and developmental optometry research. www.oepf.org/ovp-journal-editions

Vision Development & Rehabilitation Journal — Official journal of the College of Optometrists in Vision Development, covering research and clinical practice in vision therapy and visual rehabilitation. www.covd.org/page/vdr

Core Textbooks

Clinical Management of Binocular Vision: Heterophoric, Accommodative, and Eye Movement Disorders — Mitchell Scheiman OD and Bruce Wick OD PhD. The standard clinical reference for binocular vision diagnosis and management.

Optometric Management of Learning-Related Vision Problems — Mitchell Scheiman OD and Michael Rouse OD. Addresses the pediatric and learning-related populations central to developmental optometry practice.

Optometric Management of Nearpoint Vision Disorders — Martin Birnbaum OD. Focused clinical reference for accommodative and vergence dysfunction.

Applied Concepts in Vision Therapy 2.0 — Leonard J. Press OD, Marc B. Taub, OD, MS, and Pamela H. Schnell, OD. The most practically organized of the core texts; designed for use in the clinical environment as much as for study.

Vision Rehabilitation: Multidisciplinary Care of the Patient Following Brain Injury — Penelope Suter OD and Lisa Harvey OD, editors. The most comprehensive available clinical reference for post-concussion and acquired brain injury visual rehabilitation.

The Skeffington Perspective of the Behavioral Model of Optometric Data Analysis and Vision Care — Earl P. Schmitt OD EdD DOS. The definitive textbook for the 21-point analysis — a systematic, citation-supported guide to case typing based on refraction and phorometry findings. Out of print as a hard copy; available electronically through Google Books. books.google.com

Professional Credentials

Fellow of the Optometric Vision Development and Rehabilitation Association (FOVDR) — The field's primary competency credential in vision therapy and visual rehabilitation, requiring documented patient care, written examination, and a board-evaluated case presentation. Previously known as the FCOVD. Administered by the College of Optometrists in Vision Development. www.covd.org

Certification in Optometric Extension Program Foundation (COEP) — The OEPF's certification program recognizing demonstrated competency in the behavioral and developmental optometry framework, including the functional examination, case analysis, and lens prescribing philosophy. www.oepf.org/certification

Fellow of the Australasian College of Behavioural Optometry (FACBO) — The primary credential in behavioral optometry for practitioners in Australia and New Zealand, recognized internationally as a marker of advanced clinical training in the behavioral model. acbo.org.au/professionals/menu/education/97-fellowship-program

NORA Clinical Skills Fellowship Program — Credential offered by the Neuro-Optometric Rehabilitation Association recognizing clinical competency in the assessment and management of visual dysfunction following acquired brain injury. noravisionrehab.org/about-nora/clinical-skills-fellowship